Systems and methods for series battery charging

ABSTRACT

Systems and methods for charging and discharging a plurality of batteries are described herein. In some embodiments, a system includes a battery module, an energy storage system electrically coupled to the battery module, a power source, and a controller. The energy storage system is operable in a first operating state in which energy is transferred from the energy storage system to the battery module to charge the battery module, and a second operating state in which energy is transferred from the battery module to the energy storage system to discharge the battery module. The power source electrically coupled to the energy storage system and is configured to transfer energy from the power source to the energy storage system based on an amount of stored energy in the energy storage system. The controller is operably coupled to the battery module and is configured to monitor and control a charging state of the battery module.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 62/063,167, filed Oct. 13, 2014 and entitled “Systemsand Methods for Series Battery Charging,” the disclosure of which ishereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Embodiments described herein relate generally to systems and methods forcharging one or more batteries, and more particularly to systems andmethods for charging a plurality of batteries that are coupled togetherin series.

The final step in a manufacturing process of rechargeable batteriestypically includes a battery formation step. Cell formation is theprocess of transforming the active materials of a new cell into theirusable form. The initial crystal structure of the electrolyte or theelectrodes is determined by the manufacturing process by which thesecomponents were made and the process of forming the electrodes, whichmay not be the optimum structure for minimizing the internal impedanceof the cell and may not give optimum contact between the electrolyte andthe electrodes. The passage of current through the cell, and the heatingand cooling of the cell, causes small changes in the microstructure ormorphology of the active chemicals, and creates a stable solidelectrolyte interface (SEI) that can passivate the electrode-electrolyteinterface as well as prevent side reactions. Several cycles of chargingand discharging of the batteries are usually carried out to ensure thatthe capacity and performance of the batteries meets the requiredspecifications. During charging and discharging batteries are normallymonitored and controlled due to the high energy density involved in theprocesses. Existing battery systems and modules typically haveintegrated voltage sensing, temperature sensing and safety controlelectronics. Moreover, battery module and packs are typically assembledand integrated using already formed cells.

SUMMARY

Systems and methods for charging and discharging a plurality ofbatteries are described herein. In some embodiments, a system includes abattery module, an energy storage system electrically coupled to thebattery module, a power source, and a controller. The energy storagesystem is operable in a first operating state in which energy istransferred from the energy storage system to the battery module tocharge the battery module, and a second operating state in which energyis transferred from the battery module to the energy storage system todischarge the battery module. The power source electrically coupled tothe energy storage system and is configured to transfer energy from thepower source to the energy storage system based on an amount of storedenergy in the energy storage system. The controller is operably coupledto the battery module and is configured to monitor and control acharging state of the battery module.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of battery formation systems,according to various embodiments.

FIG. 2 shows battery modules that can be used in a battery formationsystem like the one shown in FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 shows battery formation systems with series batteries, accordingto various embodiments.

FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating methods of battery formation,according to various embodiments.

FIG. 5 shows a flowchart illustrating battery formation methods,according to various embodiments.

FIG. 6 illustrates battery formation methods for a plurality of batterymodules, according to various embodiments.

FIG. 7 shows a flowchart of battery formation methods for seriesbatteries, according to various embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Systems and methods for charging and discharging a plurality ofbatteries are described herein. In some embodiments, a system includes abattery module, an energy storage system electrically coupled to thebattery module, a power source, and a controller. The energy storagesystem is operable in a first operating state in which energy istransferred from the energy storage system to the battery module tocharge the battery module, and a second operating state in which energyis transferred from the battery module to the energy storage system todischarge the battery module. The power source electrically coupled tothe energy storage system and is configured to transfer energy from thepower source to the energy storage system based on an amount of storedenergy in the energy storage system. The controller is operably coupledto the battery module and is configured to monitor and control acharging state of the battery module. In some embodiments, the batterymodule can include a plurality of batteries connected in series. In someembodiments, the system can further include a cell fixture configured toconnect a plurality of batteries in series.

In some other embodiments, a battery formation method includestransferring energy from an energy storage system to a first batterymodule to charge the first battery module, monitoring a charging stateof the first battery module with a first controller operably coupled tothe first battery module, transferring energy from the first batterymodule to the energy storage system to discharge the first batterymodule, transferring energy from the energy storage system to the secondbattery module to charge the second battery module, and monitoring acharging state of the second battery module with a second controlleroperably coupled to the second battery module. In some embodiments, theformation method can further include monitoring an amount of storedenergy in the energy storage system, and transferring energy from apower source to the energy storage system if the amount of stored energyfalls below a threshold value. In some embodiments, energy istransferred from the energy storage system to the first battery moduleduring a first time period, energy is transferred from the first batterymodule during a second time period, and energy is transferred from theenergy storage system to the second battery module during a third timeperiod. At least a portion of the first time period can be concurrentwith at least a portion of the third time period. At least a portion ofthe second time period can be concurrent with at least a portion of thethird time period.

As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singularforms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the contextclearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, the term “a member” isintended to mean a single member or a combination of members, “amaterial” is intended to mean one or more materials, or a combinationthereof

As used herein, the term “set” can refer to multiple features or asingular feature with multiple parts. For example, when referring to setof battery modules, the set of modules can be considered as one modulewith distinct portions (e.g., cell fixtures, wires, connectors, etc.),or the set of modules can be considered as multiple modules. Similarlystated, a monolithically constructed item can include a set of modules.Such a set of modules can include, for example, multiple portions thatare discontinuous from each other. A set of modules can also bemanufactured from multiple items that are produced separately and arelater joined together (e.g., via a weld, an adhesive, or any suitablemethod).

As used herein, the terms “about,” “approximately,” and “substantially”when used in connection with a numerical value is intended to conveythat the value so defined is nominally the value stated. Said anotherway, the terms about, approximately, and substantially when used inconnection with a numerical value generally include the value statedplus or minus a given tolerance. For example, in some instances, asuitable tolerance can be plus or minus 10% of the value stated; thus,about 0.5 would include 0.45 and 0.55, about 10 would include 9 to 11,about 1000 would include 900 to 1100. In other instances, a suitabletolerance can be plus or minus an acceptable percentage of the lastsignificant figure in the value stated. For example, a suitabletolerance can be plus or minus 10% of the last significant figure; thus,about 10.1 would include 10.09 and 10.11, approximately 25 would include24.5 and 25.5. Such variance can result from manufacturing tolerances orother practical considerations (such as, for example, tolerancesassociated with a measuring instrument, acceptable human error, or thelike).

Rechargeable batteries or cells are typically manufactured withelectronically inert chemical compounds. After the batteries are fullyassembled, the electronically inert compounds are converted intoelectroactive species in a process known as formation (also referred toherein as “battery formation”, “cell formation”, and/or “moduleformation”). Formation is essentially the first charge carried out atthe cell manufacturer's plant under carefully controlled conditions ofcurrent, temperature, and duration to create the desired microstructureof the components and the contact between them. The formation processcan generally be divided into two phases. First, a constant current isapplied to the cell or battery up to a predetermined voltage limit. Oncethe predetermined voltage limit is reached, the voltage is maintained ata constant value and the current applied trails off to a low value. Theformation process can then be terminated based upon a total number ofampere-hours applied into the cell or group of cells, or based on acurrent limit as the charging current decreases with the internalresistance of the cell.

In conventional systems, battery formation is normally performed withone cell per channel and at slow rates such as C/10 (i.e., 1/10 of thecell's A-hr rating). The channels are usually connected with each otherin parallel such that there is a constant voltage across all of thecells. This parallel arrangement can have several drawbacks. Forexample, it normally takes high upfront capital expenditures to build aparallel charging-discharging system since each channel in the system isindependent from one another and the charging take place at such slowrates. Similarly, the independent channels can require additionalancillary components (e.g., diagnostic system, data transmission,battery control, massive amount of individual cell containers, etc.) tosupport and manage the large number of channels simultaneously.Furthermore, since the same voltage is applied to all batteries, it maybe difficult to prevent overcharging or undercharging, thereforenegatively influencing the yield of the cell manufacturing plant.

Cell formation can also be a very energy intensive process and can causesignificant energy consumption issues at a cell manufacturing plant. Forexample, if a factory targets producing 500 MWh of battery capacity peryear, the formation process alone can consume more than 500 MWh ofenergy per year since each battery typically undergoes at least onecomplete charge-discharge cycle. Said another way, the energy consumedduring the charging process is typically discharged and dissipated asheat during the test of battery capacity, therefore creating energywaste. With some chemical formulations, it may take ten charge-dischargecycles or more before the battery is able to deliver its full power orcapacity. Thus, the energy consumption issues can be further exacerbatedby repetitive charging and discharging cycles in battery formation, orto test the battery capacity to make sure the batteries meet thespecification requirements, or to sort the batteries into differentcategories for distribution. Thus, battery formation can be both energyintensive and capital intensive.

FIG. 1 shows a battery formation system that can address, at leastpartially, the drawbacks in conventional battery formation systems. Insome embodiments, the battery formation system 100 includes a powersource 110, an energy storage system 120, one or more battery modules130, and a controller 140. The battery modules 130 can includeindividual cells, individual batteries, modules (e.g. a plurality ofindividual cells that are connected, for example, in series orparallel), or a battery pack (e.g. a plurality of modules that areconnected, for example, in series or parallel) to form the module 130.For example, the battery module 130 can include 12 batteries connectedin series, each of which has a specified voltage of 1.5 V, to form an18-volt module. In another example, the battery module 130 can includefour 3.6 V Li-ion cells in series to achieve 14.4 V and two strings ofthese 4 cells in parallel to increase the capacity, for example, from2400 mAh to 4800 mAh.

In some embodiments, the battery modules 130 can include a cell fixture(not shown) configured to connect a plurality of cells (also referred toherein as batteries) for charging and discharging. For example, the cellfixture can be configured to connect a plurality of cells in at leastthree configurations. In a first configuration, the cell fixture can beconfigured to connect a plurality of cells in series such that aconstant current is flowing across the plurality of cells to achieve avoltage that is the sum of each individual cell voltage. In a secondconfiguration, the cell fixture is configured to connect a plurality ofcells in parallel such that a constant voltage is applied across theplurality of individual cells. In this configuration, a higher currentcan be transferred from the battery module 130 to the energy storagesystem 120 during discharge. In a third configuration, the cell fixturecan be configured to connect a plurality of cells in a combination ofboth series and parallel (also referred to as a serial/parallelconfiguration). In this third configuration, sets of cells are connectedin series into strings, and the strings are then connected in parallel.This third “hybrid” configuration can allow design flexibility to chargea plurality of batteries of different specifications.

In some embodiments, the cell fixtures can be replaced or supplementedby docking stations (not shown) to allow wireless charging of batterymodules 130. Since electrical connectors in docking stations can be wellsealed, inductive charging can be free of corrosion or hazard induced byoxygen, water, or chemicals, among others.

The energy storage system 120 is electrically coupled to the batterymodules 130 and is configured to allow bi-directional transfer of energybetween the energy storage system 120 and the battery modules 130. Inone operating state, the energy storage system 120 is configured totransfer energy from the energy storage system 120 to the batterymodules 130 to charge the battery modules 130. In a second operatingstate, the energy storage system 120 is configured to transfer energyfrom the battery modules 130 to the energy storage system 120 todischarge the battery modules 130. The energy transferred from thebattery modules 130 to the energy storage system 120 can be stored forfuture use including, for example, recharging the battery modules 130for battery formation or testing. Through recycling the energy frombattery discharging, energy consumption for the battery formation system100, and thus the overall battery manufacturing process, can be reduced.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system 120 can be configured tocharge a plurality of battery modules 130 at substantially the sametime, and then later discharge the same plurality of battery modules130. In some embodiments, the energy storage system can be configured tocharge a first battery module 130 (or a first set of battery modules130) and discharge a second battery module 130 (or a second set ofbattery modules 130) at substantially the same time. The energy storagesystem 120 can be configured to charge and/or discharge any number ofbattery modules 130 at substantially the same time. Said another way,the energy storage system 120 can be electrically coupled to a pluralityof individual battery modules 130, or a plurality of sets of batterymodules 130, and each battery module 130 or set of modules can becharged or discharged independent of the charging state of the rest ofthe plurality of modules 130.

The energy storage system 120 as used in the formation system 100 can beselected from a variety of options. In some embodiments, the energystorage system 120 can include one or more arrays of rechargeablebatteries such as, for example, Lithium ion (Li-ion), Nickel cadmium(NiCd), Nickel Metal Hyride (NiMH), Sealed Lead Acid (SLA), SodiumSulfide (NAS) or any other type of rechargeable batteries known in theart. As described herein, the array of rechargeable batteries can beconfigured deliver energy to the battery module 130 for charging, andreceive and store energy during discharge. Current technologies canproduce energy storage systems 120 with an output capacity of more than1 MWh using lithium ion cells.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system 120 can include flowbatteries. Flow batteries allow the batteries' power to be decoupledfrom the batteries' capacity, so users can tune the batteries'specification to specific applications and situations. Flow batteriesused for constructing the energy storage system 120 can be made from oneor more of the following cells: Li-ion flow cells, redox cells in whichelectrochemical components are dissolved in the electrolyte, hybridcells that have one or more electroactive components deposited as asolid layer, membraneless cells which employ laminar flow to undergoelectrochemical reactions to store or release energy, organic cells thatcan use carbon-based molecules, for example,9,10-anthraquinone-2,7-disulphonic acid (AQDS), as charge carriers,metal hydride cells which integrate a metal hydride storage electrodeinto a reversible proton exchange membrane fuel cell, and nano-networkcells that uses lithium sulfur chemistry arranged in a network ofnanoparticles. Energy storage medium in flow batteries can be, forexample, Bromine-hydrogen, Iron-tin, Iron-titanium, Iron-chrome,Vanadium-vanadium (sulphate), Vanadium-vanadium (bromide),Sodium/bromine polysulfide, Zinc-bromine, Lead-acid, Zinc-cerium, ortheir combinations.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system 120 can include one ormore electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLC), Li-ion capacitors, orhybrid capacitors, which can employ two energy storage mechanisms. Thefirst storage mechanism can be electrostatic storage of the electricalenergy achieved by separation of charge in a Helmholtz double layer atthe interface between the surface of a conductor electrode and anelectrolytic solution electrolyte. The separation distance in the doublelayer structure can be less than 1 nanometer. Additionally, the energycan be stored and released through electrochemical reactions, morespecifically, redox reaction electrosorption or intercalation on thesurface of the electrode by specifically absorbed ions that result in areversible faradaic charge-transfer on the electrode.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system 120 can include aFlywheel Energy Storage (FES). In this example, the energy storagesystem 120 can store its electrical energy as mechanical energy (morespecifically, rotational energy) by accelerating a rotor (flywheel) to ahigh speed, and deliver its stored energy by using the rotatingflywheels to drive a power generator. Magnetic bearings can be used forthe rotors to reduce friction and therefore increase energy storageefficiency. Composite materials, such as carbon-fiber composites, can beused to make the rotors to increase the strength-to-density ratio of therotor and further increase the efficiency.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system 120 can includesuperconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) to store and deliverpower. The energy system 120, in this example, can comprise asuperconducting coil to store the energy, a power conditioning system tocoordinate the storage and release of powers, and a cooling system tocool the superconducting coil below its superconducting criticaltemperature. The electrical energy can be stored in a magnetic fieldcreated by the flow of direct current in the superconducting coil, whichhas nearly zero resistance and therefore will not decay the storedenergy. Releasing the magnetic energy to either the utility grid or thebattery charging module can be achieved by discharging the coil.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system 120 can includehydroelectric (e.g., pumped hydro) energy storage. Electricity can bestored by pumping water or other types of fluids to a reservoir at ahigher elevation, and the stored energy can later be released by usingthe fluids to drive a power generator, similar to power generation in ahydropower plant.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system 120 can includethermoelectric energy storage (TEES). For instance, the energy storagesystem 120 can use the electricity to heat up a fluid (e.g., oil), whichcan be maintained at a high temperature with low thermal losses. Whenenergy release is needed, the heated fluid can drive a steam turbine, agas turbine or similar to generate electricity, similar to powergeneration in a fuel power station.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system 120 can includecompressed air energy storage (CAES). For example, the energy storagesystem 120 can use a compressor to pressurize air and pump thecompressed air into storage caverns or tanks. When energy is needed, thecompressed air can be released, (optionally) heated, and forced througha turbine to generate power. The heat generated during compression canbe stored and used during expansion to further increase the storageefficiency. The CAES system can operate in several modes, includingadiabatic mode, diabatic mode, and isothermal mode, as readilyunderstood in the art.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system 120 can be a hybridsystem that combines more than one types of energy storage schemesmentioned above. For example, the energy storage system 120 can includea battery system and fuel cells.

The power source 110 is electrically coupled to the energy storagesystem 120 and is configured to transfer energy from the power source tothe energy storage system based on an amount of stored energy in theenergy storage system. For example, the power source 110 can providestart-up energy for the energy storage system 120 to initiate thecharging and discharging cycles in which this start-up energy isrecycled. Moreover, when the amount of energy available in the energystorage system 120 drops below a threshold level during charging anddischarging cycles, the power source 110 can be configured to transfersupplemental energy to the energy storage system 120 to ensure properoperation of the formation system 100. Said another way, the powersource 110 can compensate for energy losses in the energy storage system120. For example, an energy storage system 120 comprising rechargeablebattery arrays may lose part of the energy storage through heatgeneration and dissipation. In another example, an energy storage system120 including flywheel energy storage (FES) may need make-up power tocompensate energy losses due to friction of the flywheels.

In some embodiments, energy transfer between the power source 110 andthe energy storage system 120 can be configured to be bi-directional.For example, if the power source 110 is a utility power grid, the energystorage system 120 may use its stored energy to provide power to thegrid during peak hours of energy use, and then receive “make-up” powerduring off-peak hours. Said another way, the energy storage system 120can be used for power grid load balancing. In another example, theenergy storage system 120 can function as a backup power supply byextracting energy from the batteries during unexpected power outage orduring other emergencies.

In some embodiments, energy transfer between the power source 110 andthe energy storage system 120 can be configured to be unidirectional.For example, if the power source 110 is an intermittent power supply(e.g., renewable energy generation such as solar, wind, etc.), it maynot be possible to employ bidirectional energy transfer. However, insome embodiments, the energy storage system 120 can be electricallycoupled to multiple power sources 110 (e.g., solar, wind, and a utilitygrid) to utilize renewable power when available, utilize utility gridpower when the renewable supply is not available, and even to store andtransfer (e.g., balance) renewable energy when production is greaterthan demand (e.g. when the wind is blowing at night in the case of windturbines).

The controller 140 is operably coupled to the battery module 130 and isconfigured to monitor and control a charging state of the batterymodule. Moreover, the controller 140 can also be operably coupled to theenergy storage system 120 and configured to monitor and control acharging state of the energy storage system.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can be configured to monitor andcontrol charging states at each level of the system 100. On a systemlevel, the controller 140 can coordinate the system 100 with externalcomponents, such as public utilities. For example, the controller 140can determine when and where to send its stored energy. On a modulelevel, the controller 140 can coordinate the operation among, forexample, the battery module 130, the energy storage system 120, and thepower source 110. The controller 140 can also adjust the timing ofcharging or discharging, which battery module to be charged ordischarged, or how much energy to be stored or released, among others.On a battery level, the controller 140 can regulate each battery to, forexample, detect bad or outlier cells, balance cells, orconnect/disconnect selected batteries, among others, thereforeoptimizing the battery formation process. As used herein, an outliercell is a cell that acts differently from other cells during chargeand/or discharge (for example, cannot be charged and/or discharged, orcharges and/or discharges at a different rate than other cells).

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can include two functionalunits: a diagnostic unit (not shown) and a control unit (not shown) tomonitor and control the charging states, respectively. Charging statesthat can be monitored and/or controlled by the controller 140 caninclude voltage, temperature, state of charge, state of health, coolantflow, and current, among others. The diagnostic unit can acquirecharging states via several methods. For example, in a chemical method,charging states can be derived from the specific gravity or pH value ofthe electrolyte. In a voltage method, the voltage of the battery can bemeasured and converted to state of charge, using discharge curve of thebattery. Similarly, measuring the battery current and integrating themeasured current data in time can also provide information on thecharging state, as in a current integration method, also known as acoulomb counting method. A Kalman filter can be used to enhance theaccuracy of the voltage method and the current integration method byinterpreting the raw data in a more accurate way. For some types ofbatteries, such as NiMH batteries, internal pressure increases as thebatteries are charged, therefore allowing the derivation of chargingstates based on the internal pressure, as in a pressure method.

In some embodiments, the charging states acquired by the diagnostic unitof the controller 140 can be used to generate control signals in orderfor the control unit of the controller 140 to make correspondingadjustments. For example, a higher than average voltage on certain cellsmay indicate potential overcharging and can prompt the control unit todisconnect the cells for a while. In another example, a temperature outof a predetermined range may indicate low charging efficiency orpotential hazard, in which case the control unit can act accordingly tobring the temperature back to the preset range.

In some embodiments, the control unit can also adjust charging statesbased on an external signal. For instance, when the energy storagesystem 120 functions as a backup energy source, the controller 140 canswitch ongoing charging cycles to discharging cycles during unexpectedpower outages. In operation, the controller 140 can be integrated withcomputer software to receive and analyze control signals from bothinside and outside the system 100 and achieve automated operation.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can take advantage of existingbattery management systems (BMS) to monitor and control charging statesof the batteries. The BMS, as used in the controller 140, can includeone or more of the following modules: cell protection, charge control,demand management, state of charge (SOC) determination, state of health(SOH) determination, cell balancing, history log, and communication,among others.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can include a cell protectionmodule to address one or more of the following undesirable events orconditions: excessive current during charging or discharging, shortcircuit, over voltage (charging), under voltage (exceeding preset depthof discharge limits), high ambient temperature, overheating (exceedingthe cell temperature limit), pressure build-up inside the cell, systemisolation in case of accident and abuse. The cell protection module canprovide useful monitoring and control to protect the cells fromout-of-tolerance ambient or operating conditions and to protect the userfrom the consequences of battery failures. The protection can beachieved by, in a first example, thermal fuses which may shut down thebattery when the ambient temperature exceeds a preset limit. In a secondexample, thermistors can be used to adjust their resistance in responseto temperature changes. In a third example, resettable fuses can be usedto provide on-battery over-current protection and reset themselves oncefault conditions are removed.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can include a charge controlmodule, which can configure and implement charging schemes for thebatteries. This charge control unit can be especially helpful forbattery formation and/or testing that takes more than one charging anddischarging cycles. The controller 140 can be configured to realize atleast the following charging schemes: constant voltage charging,constant current charging, taper current charging, pulsed charging, burpcharging (also referred to as reflex charging or negative pulsecharging), IUI charging, trickle charging, float charging, randomcharging, among others.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can be configured to implement aconstant voltage charging scheme, in which the batteries are charged bya constant voltage until a preset state of charge is reached. Similarly,the controller 140 can be configured to implement a constant currentcharging scheme, which applies a constant current flow across thebatteries for charging until the batteries reach a preset state ofcharge. Furthermore, the controller 140 can be configured to implement ataper current charging scheme, which utilizes a crude unregulatedconstant voltage source for charging and the current diminishes as thecell voltage builds up.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can be configured to implement apulsed charging scheme, which feeds the charge current to the battery inpulses. The charging rate (based on the average current) can beprecisely controlled by varying the width of the pulses, typically aboutone second. During the charging process, short rest periods of 20 to 30milliseconds between pulses can allow the chemical actions in thebattery to stabilize by equalizing the reaction throughout the bulk ofthe electrode before recommencing the charge. This may also allow thechemical reaction in the batteries to keep pace with the rate ofinputting the electrical energy.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can be configured to implement aburp charging scheme, which usually applies a very short dischargepulse, typically 2 to 3 times the charging current for 5 milliseconds,during the charging rest period to depolarize the cell. These pulses candislodge gas bubbles built up on the electrodes during fast charging,therefore speeding up the stabilization process and hence the overallcharging process. The release and diffusion of the gas bubbles is knownas “burping”.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can be configured to implementan IUI charging scheme. In a typical IUI charging scheme, the battery isfirst charged at a constant (I) rate until the cell voltage reaches apreset value—normally a voltage near to that at which gassing occurs.This first part of the charging cycle is known as the bulk charge phase.When the preset voltage has been reached, the charging switches into theconstant voltage (U) phase and the current drawn by the batterygradually drops until it reaches another preset level. This second partof the cycle completes the normal charging of the battery at a slowlydiminishing rate. Finally, the charging switches again back to theconstant current mode (I) and the voltage continues to rise up to a newand higher preset limit, at which point the charging is terminated. Thislast phase is used to equalize the charge on the individual cells in thebattery to maximize battery life.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can be configured to implement atrickle charging scheme, which can compensate for the self-discharge ofthe battery. The charge rate can vary according to the frequency andamplitude of discharge. In some applications the charging can bedesigned to switch to trickle charging mode when the battery is fullycharged.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can be configured to implement afloat charging scheme, in which the battery and the load are permanentlyconnected in parallel across the DC charging source and held at aconstant voltage below the battery's upper voltage limit. This methodcan be used for emergency power back up systems.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can be configured to implement arandom charging mode, in which the charge of the battery is in somerandom and/or uncontrolled way. This method can apply to certain energystorage systems 120 which stores electrical energy as mechanical energy(e.g., flywheel energy storage) and deliver its stored energy at a ratedepending on the wheel speed. This method can also be used when thepower source 110 is, for example, a solar power plant which normallyprovides energy when the sun is shining.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can be configured to implementmore than one charging schemes in order to improve the chargingefficiency. For example, constant voltage charging may be followed by atrickle charging to compensate spontaneous discharge of batteries. Or,the power source 110 can comprise both solar power plant and utilitygrids, therefore potentially rendering a combination of constant voltagecharging and random charging advantageous.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can include a demand managementmodule to optimize energy consumption and reduce disruption of thebattery formation or testing procedures. For example, the controller 140can be configured to reduce the overall power consumption by supplyingpower only to parts of the circuit which have an immediate demand for itand slowing down, or switching off the power to, circuits which may betemporarily idle.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can include a state of charge(SOC) module. Without being bound by any theory or mode of operation,state of charge (SOC) can be defined as the available capacity expressedas a percentage of some references, which can be, for example, the ratedcapacity or current capacity. Knowing the amount of energy left in abattery can provide one basis for regulating the charging of thebattery.

In some embodiments, the controller can include a state of health (SOH)module. State of health (SOH) can be defined as a measure of a battery'scapability to deliver its specified output. Knowing the SOH can beespecially helpful for assessing the readiness of emergency poweroutput. However, SOH can be a subjective measure in that differentpeople derive it from different measurable battery performanceparameters. SOH can be estimation rather than a measurement.Accordingly, a consistent set of rules may be helpful in making theestimation more meaningful. For example, the SOH can be estimated usingcell impedance or conductance as the reference.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can include a cell balancingmodule. In multi-cell battery chains, or multi-battery modules, smalldifferences between cells due to production tolerances or operatingconditions tend to be magnified with each charging and dischargingcycle. For example, weaker cells become overstressed during charging,causing them to become even weaker, until they eventually fail. Cellbalancing is one method of maximizing the capacity of weaker cells byslowing the charge of stronger cells in the chain.

The controller 140 can be configured to realize cell balancing throughseveral schemes, including active balancing, passive balancing, chargeshunting, charge limiting, and lossless balancing, among others. Activecell balancing can remove charge from one or more high cells and deliverthe charge to one or more low cells, therefore realizing cellequalization. Passive balancing techniques find the cells with thehighest charge in the pack, indicated by the higher cell voltage, andremove excess energy through a bypass resistor until the voltage orcharge matches the voltage on the weaker cells. In a charge shuntingmethod, once the rated voltage on a cell has been reached, the fullcurrent bypasses the fully charged cell until the weaker cells reachfull voltage. This can be fast and allow maximum storage. Chargelimiting method in cell balancing switches off the charging system whenthe first cell reaches the preset voltage. This method can protect thecells but can also terminate the charging before all of the cells havereached full charge.

In some embodiments, the cell balancing module can include computersoftware which, for example, increases the rest periods of cells with ahigher SOC until the others catch up, thus avoiding overcharge. Duringdischarging, however, the rest periods can be increased for cells with alower SOC, thus avoiding over-discharging. Since there is no excesscharge to dissipate, the method can be lossless.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can include a history log moduleto provide history data on the performance of each battery, thereforespecifying the state of health in a more accurate way. In addition tothe number of charge-discharge cycles completed by the battery, extremeoperating conditions experienced by the battery can also be recorded todepict a more comprehensive picture of the battery performance. Fromthis data, a figure representing the SOH can be determined by using aweighted average of the measured parameters. Battery usage (or abusage)data can also be stored in memory and downloaded when required.

In some embodiments, the controller 140 can include a communicationmodule to, for example, monitor performance, log data, set systemparameters, or carry system control signals, among others. Thecommunication module can transport signals through RS232 connection,EIA-485 connection, Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C) bus, universal seriesbus (USB), controller area network (CAN) bus, local management network(LIN) bus, FlexRay bus, system management (SM) bus, or theircombinations.

In some embodiments, the above mentioned modules (cell protection,charge control, demand management, state of charge (SOC) determination,state of health (SOH) determination, cell balancing, history log, andcommunication) apply equally to discharging processes. For example, thecontroller 140 can detect batteries having a depth of discharge (DOD)larger than a preset value, and isolate the batteries to avoidover-discharge. In another example, the charge control module of thecontroller 140 can also implement various discharging schemes, such asconstant voltage, constant current, taper current, by adjusting externalload circuits.

In some embodiments, the above mentioned modules in the controller 140can be operably coupled to other components in the battery formationsystem 100, including the energy storage system 120 and the power source110, so as to optimize the operation of the entire battery formationsystem 100. For example, the demand management module of the controller140 can coordinate the energy transfer between the energy storage system120 and external energy demand, streamlining the operation of bothbattery formation and energy backup.

Referring now to FIG. 2, a battery module 230 is shown that can be usedin a battery formation system (e.g., battery formation system 100)according to one exemplary embodiment. The battery module 230 includes apair of connectors 231 a and 231 b (collectively referred to asconnectors 231), a cell fixture 232, and a diagnostic unit 234. Thediagnostic unit 234 can be part of a controller like the controller 140shown in FIG. 1. In some embodiments, an existing battery managementsystem (BMS), or a portion of a BMS, can be employed as the diagnosticunit 234. The connectors 231 connect the cell fixture 232 and thediagnostic unit 234 to an energy storage system (not shown), which canbe, for example, similar to the energy storage system 120 shown inFIG. 1. Thus, the energy storage system is not described in furtherdetail herein and should be considered the same as the energy storagesystem 120 unless expressly stated otherwise. The connectors 231 canalso connect the cell fixtures 232 and the diagnostic unit 234 to acontrol unit (not shown), which can take the charging states acquired bythe diagnostic unit 234 and act correspondingly by adjusting the cellfixtures 232.

The cell fixture 232 is electrically coupled to a plurality of batteries233(1) to 233(N) (collectively referred as 233), where N is the numberof batteries in the cell fixture 232. The cell fixture 232 is configuredto connect the plurality of batteries, for example, in series. In someembodiments, the cell fixture 232 can include a plurality of slots, eachof which can receive a battery for charging so as to facilitate theinsertion and replacement of batteries. In some embodiments, the cellfixture 232 can include fewer slots than the batteries to be chargedsuch that more than one battery may be fitted in a single slot. In someembodiments, the cell fixture 232 can include a plurality of dockingstations to receive battery for wireless charging, or inductivecharging.

The diagnostic unit 234 (e.g., the BMS) is electrically coupled to thecell fixture 232 and is configured to acquire charging states of eachbattery in the cell fixture 232. The diagnostic unit 234 includes avoltage monitoring module 234 a, a cell balancing module 234 b, a stateof health (SOH) module 234 c, and a temperature monitoring module 234 d.

In some embodiments, the voltage module 234 a can include a multiplexingarchitecture, which switches the voltage from each cell in turn to asingle analogue or digital output line. Cost savings can be realized byreducing the number of analog control and/or digital sampling circuits.To acquire a near-concurrent voltage state of each cell, a high speedswitching mechanism can be used to switch the output line to each cellso that all cells can be monitored before significant voltage changeoccurs.

In some embodiments, the cell balancing module 234 b can include aplurality of switches, each of which can be electrically coupled to abattery in the cell fixture 232. The switches can disconnect certainbatteries with a voltage higher than a preset value, or problematiccells or batteries, and direct the charge to the rest of the batterieswith relatively lower voltages, therefore achieving active cellbalancing.

In some embodiments, the cell balancing module 234 b can include aplurality of bypass resistors, each of which can be coupled to a batteryin the cell fixture 232. The bypass resistor can remove or dissipateexcess energy from certain batteries with a voltage higher than the restof the batteries, until the rest of the batteries catch up, thereforeachieving passive cell balancing. The bypass resistor can also removeexcess charge from certain batteries when those batteries are fullycharged, until the weaker cells reach full charge, allowing maximumenergy storage.

In some embodiments, the cell balancing module 234 b can includecomputer software to realize automated operation. For example, thesoftware can be programmed to increase the rest periods of cells with ahigher SOC until the others catch up, thus avoiding overcharge. Duringdischarging, however, the rest periods can be increased for cells with alower SOC, thus avoiding over-discharging. Since there is no excesscharge to dissipate, the method can be lossless.

In some embodiments, the SOH module 234 c can include a processor, amemory, and a fuzzy logic circuit to facilitate the acquisition of SOHdata. The SOH module 234 c can measure several battery factors,including capacity, internal resistance, self-discharge, chargeacceptance, discharge capabilities, mobility of electrolyte and cyclecounting if possible, to make an estimation of the SOH from acombination of these factors. These raw data can be processed by theprocessor. For automated measurements and estimation, the initialconditions and the subsequent conditions, also referred to as“experiences”, can be stored in the memory. The fuzzy logic circuit cancombine the “experiences” and newly measured data to refine theestimation based on a learning process.

In some embodiments, the temperature monitoring module 234 d can includean alternating current (AC) source electrically connected to twoterminals of each battery. The AC source can perturb the battery'sterminals with a low-amplitude AC current and create a phase shift ofthe resulting voltage output of the battery. The phase shift can bedirectly related to the temperature of the anode and the cathode of thebattery. The temperature monitoring module 234 d can measure theinternal battery temperature when the battery is under charge,discharge, or rest conditions. In some embodiments, the temperaturemonitoring module 234 d can monitor an overall temperature of the entirecell fixture 232, or the temperature of the air intake or exhaust forbattery cooling. In some embodiments, the temperature monitoring module234 d can include a plurality of thermistors that are locally attachedat positions near the battery terminals or the battery body to directlymeasurement the temperature.

FIG. 3 shows a battery formation system 300 that includes a power source310, an energy storage system 320, a pair of battery modules 330 a and330 b (collectively referred to as 330), a controller 340, and a powerconverter 350, according to an embodiment. In some embodiments, anynumber of battery modules 330 and controllers 340 (including a BMSdiagnostic unit like the one shown in FIG. 2) can be electricallycoupled to the battery formation system 300 (e.g., 3, 4, 5, etc.).

The power source 310 is electrically coupled to the energy storagesystem 320 and configured to transfer energy from the power source 310to the energy storage system 320 for battery charging. The power source310 can include a wind power plant 312, a solar power plant 314, and autility grid 316. In some embodiments, the wind power plant 312 cantransfer energy to the energy transfer system 320 when abundant wind isavailable but energy demand from utilities is low. Similarly, the solarpower plant 314 can transfer energy to the energy storage system 320during daytime when energy demand is not as high as energy production.The transferred energy can be used for battery formation, or forsupplementing the utility grid 316 during night or other times whenenergy demand exceeds the energy production from the window power plant312 or solar power plant 316. In some embodiments, the power source 310can be substantially similar to and/or the same as the power source 110described above with reference to FIG. 1. Thus, the power source 310 isnot described in further detail herein and should be considered the sameas the power source 110 unless expressly stated otherwise.

The energy storage system 320 is electrically coupled to the batterymodules 330 a and 330 b, and is configured to allow bi-directionaltransfer of energy between the energy storage system 320 and the batterymodules 330. In one operating state, the energy storage system 320 isconfigured to transfer energy from the energy storage system 320 to thebattery modules 330 to charge the battery modules 330. In a secondoperating state, the energy storage system 320 is configured to transferenergy from the battery modules 330 to the energy storage system 320 todischarge the battery modules 330. The energy transferred from thebattery modules 330 to the energy storage system 320 can be stored forfuture use including, for example, recharging the battery modules 330for battery formation or testing. Through recycling the energy frombattery discharging, energy consumption for the battery formation system300, and thus the overall battery manufacturing process, can be reduced.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system 320 can be configured tocharge a plurality of battery modules 330 at substantially the sametime, and then later discharge the same plurality of battery modules330. In some embodiments, the energy storage system can be configured tocharge a first battery module 330 a and discharge a second batterymodule 330 b at substantially the same time.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system 320 can include differentenergy storage schemes, including battery trailers, flow batteries,electrical double layer capacitors, flywheel energy storage,superconducting magnetic energy storage, thermoelectric energy storage,hydroelectric energy storage, compressed air energy storage, or otherenergy storage schemes known in the art. The energy storage system 320can also employ a combination of different energy storage schemes toimprove storage efficiency. In some embodiments, the energy storagesystem 320 can be substantially similar to and/or the same as the energystorage system 120 described above with reference to FIG. 1. Thus, theenergy storage system 320 is not described in further detail herein andshould be considered the same as the energy storage system 120 unlessexpressly stated otherwise.

The battery modules 330 a and 330 b are electrically coupled to theenergy storage system, and configured to receive a plurality ofbatteries 333(1) to 333 (N) and connect them in series through a cellfixture 332. In some embodiments, the two battery modules 330 a and 330b can have identical structures. In some other embodiments, the twobattery modules 330 a and 330 b can have slightly different structures.For example, the cell fixture 332 in different battery modules can bedesigned to receive different number, or different type, of batteries.

Each battery module 330 is electrically coupled to a controller 340,which includes two functional units—a control unit 342 and a diagnosticunit 344—to control and monitor charging states of each battery 333 inthe battery module 330, respectively. The diagnostic unit 344, which canutilize existing battery management systems (BMS), includes a voltagemonitoring module, a balancing module and a SOH module. Data acquired bythe diagnostic unit 344 can be used to generate a control signal for thecontrol unit 342. In some embodiments, the control unit 340 includes aplurality of switches 343, each of which is connected to a battery inthe battery module 330. In some embodiments, fewer or no switches can beemployed to simplify the system.

In some embodiments, the controller 340 is configured to disconnect,through the switches 343, certain batteries from the system when thevoltage of those batteries reaches a preset rated voltage. The switches343 can also direct the charge to the rest of the batteries with lowervoltages to achieve active cell balancing. In some embodiments, thecontroller 340 is configured to temporarily disconnect certain batterieswhen the voltage of those batteries is higher than the rest of thebatteries during charge or lower than the rest of the batteries duringdischarge. Then the controller 340 can connect back those batteries whenthe voltage of the rest of the batteries ramps up to a similar level. Insome embodiments, the controller 340 can be substantially similar toand/or the same as the controller 140 described above with reference toFIG. 1. Thus, the controller 340 is not described in further detailherein and should be considered the same as the controller 140 unlessexpressly stated otherwise.

In some embodiments, the battery formation system 300 can include apower converter 350 that is electrically coupled to the energy storagesystem 320 and the battery module 330, and is configured to adjust adirect current (DC) voltage in the first and second operating states ofthe energy storage system 320. In the first operating state, when theenergy storage system 320 is configured to transfer energy to thebattery module 330 to charge the battery module 330, the power converter350 can receive a voltage from the energy storage system 320 and convertthe voltage to another voltage in order to satisfy the chargingrequirements from the battery module for charging. In a second operatingstate, when the energy storage system 320 is configured to receiveenergy from the battery module 330 to discharge the battery module, thepower converter 350 can receive a voltage from the battery module 330and convert the voltage to another voltage in order to fit thespecification of the energy storage system 320 for power storage. Forexample, the energy storage system 320 may have an operating voltage of200V, while the battery module includes a string of 16 1.5V batteries.The power converter 350 can convert the 200V energy from the energystorage system 320 to 24 V for charging the batteries, and convert the24V energy from the battery module to 200V in order to store the energyin the energy storage system 320.

In some embodiments, the power converter 350 can be isolated type, inwhich the two sides of the power converter 350—input side and outputside—are isolated by, for example, a magnetic transformer. Isolated typepower converter can improve noise reduction and operation safety. Insome other embodiments, the power converter 350 can be non-isolated typein order to improve conversion efficiency.

In some embodiments, the power converter 350 can include a softswitching, such as a power metal-oxide-semiconductor field effecttransistor (MOSFET), or an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) inparallel with a diode, so as to achieve switching transition underfavorable conditions when the device voltage or current is zero,therefore reducing switching losses. Soft switching can also reduceswitch stress, electromagnetic interference (EMI), and/or thermalstress. In some embodiments, the power converter 350 can include an LCtank circuit(s) to shape the load currents and/or voltages to turn on orturn off the converter at zero voltage or zero current, resulting inresonant operation with negligible switching losses.

In some embodiments, the power converter 350 can be programmable so asto control the rise and fall times of the voltage and current. Thisallows the construction of complex DC transients to implement differentcharging modes, such as burp charging, trickle charging, or randomcharging, among others.

In some embodiments, the power converter 350 can include an outputinterface to deliver an output timing signal. The output timing signalcan allow precision event capturing and integration with other devices.For example, the power converter 350 can trigger the utility grid 316,using the output timing signal, to deliver power to the energy storagesystem 320 when the energy level in the energy storage system dropsbelow a threshold level.

In some embodiments, the power converter 350 can include a voltageidentification (VID) control module, which comprises a voltage regulatormodule (VRM) and a processor. The correct supply voltage can becommunicated by the processor to the VRM at startup via a number of bitscalled VID. In particular, the VRM can initially provide a standardsupply voltage to the VID logic, which can be the part of the processorwhose function is to then send the VID to the VRM. When the VRM hasreceived the VID identifying the required supply voltage, it can providethe required constant voltage supply to the processor. Instead of havinga power supply unit generating some fixed voltage, the processor can usea small set of digital signals, i.e., the VID lines, to instruct anon-board power converter of the desired voltage level.

In some embodiments, the power converter 350 can include a softwarepanel to facilitate user interaction with the power converter 350. Forexample, the software panel can include advanced Labview graphicalcontrol panels, allowing simple and efficient control and datagathering.

In some embodiments, the power converter 350 can include a currentsharing module. Current sharing can be an analog control function thatfine-tunes the output voltage, so that multiple units may be paralleledwhen operating in voltage or current priority mode. In this way, modelshaving the same voltage rating can share current equally amongparticipating units. For example, multiple battery modules can share onepower converter under current sharing operation.

In some embodiments, the power converter 350 can employ an N+1redundancy scheme, in which components (N) have at least one independentbackup component (+1) to ensure system availability in the event ofcomponent failure. The component can be, for example, a transformer or aconnector.

In some embodiment, the battery formation system 300 can include a datavisualization unit, which can display the charging states or otherparameters for operation management. For example, the data visualizationunit can show an operator the temperature, voltage, and/or current ofeach battery in a battery module, such that the operator can identifypotential bad or outlier cells. In another example, the datavisualization system can display the energy demand from utility grid,therefore allowing an operator to switch the operating state of theenergy storage system.

In some embodiments, the battery formation system 300 can include analert unit, which can take charging states of the batteries and producean alert signal when charging states of some batteries exceed a safetyrange. The alert signal can be used to feed the control unit 342, whichcan, for example, shut down the system during emergency. Or, the alertsignal can be an audio or visual signal to remind an operator torespond.

In some embodiments, the battery formation system 300 can include arework station to fix bad, or “outlier,” cells or batteries. The reworkstation can be operably coupled to the controller 340, such that whenthe controller 340 identifies a bad or outlier cell, the rework stationcan take that cell for reworking and then send back the fixed cell tothe battery module for charging.

FIG. 4 shows a battery formation method 400 according to one exemplaryembodiment. In this method, a power source is employed to transfer somestartup energy to an energy storage system, in step 410, to initiate abattery formation procedure. In step 420, the energy storage systemcharges a battery module, which can include a plurality of batteries.Charging states of the battery module can be monitored and controlled bya controller, therefore allowing the determination of whether thebatteries are fully charged, as in step 430. If the batteries are notfully charged, then the energy storage system can continue charging thebattery module. If the batteries are fully charged, the controller thendetermines in step 440 whether battery discharge is needed due to, forexample, requirements from battery formation or testing. If discharge isnot needed, the fully charged batteries can be conveyed to next steps,such as battery grading or sorting in step 450. If discharge is needed,the batteries can be discharged in step 460, in which the dischargedenergy is transferred back to the energy storage system. Afterdischarge, the controller can determines in step 470 whether recharge isnecessary for battery formation or test, based on, for example, thestate of health (SOH) of the batteries. If so, the batteries can be sentback to step 420, in which the energy storage system charges thebatteries using the energy from battery discharge in step 460. Ifbattery recharge is not needed, the batteries can be moved to step 450for grading or sorting.

In some embodiments, the energy storage system and the controller can besubstantially similar to and/or the same as the energy storage system120 and controller 140 described above with reference to FIG. 1. Thus,the energy storage system and the controller are not described infurther detail herein and should be considered the same as the energystorage system 120 and the controller 140 unless expressly statedotherwise.

In some embodiments, the power source can transfer energy to the energystorage system during battery charging or discharging. For example, thepower source can provide makeup power to the energy storage system ifthe controller detects that the amount of energy in the energy storagesystem drops below a threshold. In another example, during discharge,the controller can estimate the amount of energy to be released fromdischarge and determine whether the amount of energy is sufficient fornext round of battery charging. If not, the controller can direct thepower source to transfer supplemental energy to the energy storagesystem.

Referring now to FIG. 5, a battery charging method 500 is providedaccording to one exemplary embodiment. In the method 500, a power sourceis employed to transfer energy to an energy storage system, in step 510,to initiate the charging procedure. The energy storage system can thencharge a battery module in step 520. During charging, a controller canbe employed to monitor charging states of the batteries, as well as anycontrol signal from external utilities, in step 530. If backup power isneeded due to, for example, unexpected power outage or low energyproduction rate of solar power plant in cloudy days, the controller candirect the battery module to discharge the batteries and store thedischarged energy in the energy storage system, as in step 540. Theenergy storage system can then supplement the power source to powerexternal utilities by transferring the stored energy to the powersource, in step 550.

In some embodiments, battery charging in step 520 and energy transfer tothe power source in step 550 can occur concurrently, provided that theamount of energy stored in the energy storage system is sufficient. Forexample, the power source can be a solar plant, which can producesabundant energy during daytime while the demand is relatively low. Thepower source can store the excess energy into the energy storage systemfor both battery charging and power backup.

FIG. 6 shows a battery formation method 600 that includes chargingand/or discharging a plurality of battery modules, according to oneexemplary embodiment. In this method, a power source is first employedto transfer energy to an energy storage system to initiate the formationprocedures in step 610, followed by the charging of a plurality ofbattery modules using the energy storage system in step 620. Acontroller is employed to monitor charging states of each battery moduleand determine whether any battery module is fully charged in step 630. Abattery module can be regarded as fully charged when, for example, thevoltage is above a preset value. If no fully charged module is found instep 630, the energy storage system can continue charging the batterymodules. On the other hand, if one or more modules are fully charged,the controller then determines whether all modules are fully charged instep 640. If so, the controller can direct the battery modules todischarge the batteries and store the discharge energy in the energystorage system as in step 650. If some battery modules are fully chargedbut not the others, the controller can then direct the battery module todischarge those fully charged battery modules and store the dischargeenergy in the energy storage system, which can concurrently charge thosebattery modules that are not fully charged in step 660.

In some embodiments, the controller can selectively discharge and/orcharge certain fully charged battery modules in step 650 and/or 660. Forexample, the controller can monitor the capacity of batteries in eachbattery module, and terminate the charging/discharging cycles for thosebattery modules that have a capacity greater than a preset value.

FIG. 7 shows a battery formation method 700 that includes charging aplurality of batteries or battery cells, which can be connected, forexample, in series, according to one exemplary embodiment. In thismethod, an energy storage system is used to charge the series batteriesin step 710. A charging state of each battery is monitored by acontroller in step 720. Based on the acquired charging states, thecontroller can identify cells with defects in step 730. If no bad oroutlier cell is detected, the energy storage system can keep chargingthe batteries. In the situation in which the controller identifiescertain bad or outlier cells, the controller can then isolate the bad oroutlier cells from the rest of the cells in step 740. The bad or outliercells can be evaluated, in step 750, to determine whether the defectsare correctable by a reworking process. If the defects are notcorrectable, the controller can direct the energy storage system to keepcharging the rest of the cells, while removing the bad or outlier cells,in step 760. If, however, the defects are correctable, a rework step canbe performed to fix the bad or outlier cells, followed by placing thefixed cells back to the system for charging in step 770.

In some embodiments, the steps 730, 740 and 750 can be performed onlinewithout disrupting the battery formation system. For example, thedetection of bad or outlier cells can be based on a battery voltage,which can be evaluated via an AC current perturbation method asdescribed before with reference to FIG. 1. In some embodiments, thecontroller can adjust the output voltage from the energy storage systemto accommodate the removal of bad or outlier cells and/or the insertionof fixed cells.

1-20. (canceled)
 21. A battery formation system comprising: a pluralityof battery cells; an energy storage system bidirectionally coupled tothe plurality of battery cells, the energy storage system operable in afirst operating state in which energy is transferred from the energystorage system to the plurality of battery cells to charge the pluralityof battery cells, and a second operating state in which the energy istransferred from the battery cells to the centralized energy storagesystem to discharge the plurality of battery cells; an electricalconnection to a power source to electrically couple the energy storagesystem to the power source to transfer energy from the power source tothe energy storage system; and a controller operably coupled to theplurality of battery cells and the centralized energy storage systemconfigured to monitor and control a charging state of the plurality ofbattery cells.
 22. The system of claim 21, wherein the plurality ofbattery cells comprise a battery module.
 23. The system of claim 22,wherein the battery module further includes a cell fixture configured tobe electrically coupled to a plurality of battery cells, the cellfixture configured to connect the plurality of battery cells in series.24. The system of claim 22, wherein the battery module further includesa cell fixture configured to be electrically coupled to a plurality ofbatteries, the cell fixture configured to connect the plurality ofbatteries in a plurality of configurations.
 25. The system of claim 24,wherein one of the plurality of configurations is a seriesconfiguration.
 26. The system of claim 22, wherein the battery modulefurther includes a docking station configured for wireless charging ofthe battery module.
 27. The system of claim 21, wherein the energystorage system is configured to store energy by at least one of: anelectrical double-layer capacitor (EDLC), a Li-ion capacitor, a hybridcapacitor, a flywheel, and a superconducting coil.
 28. The system ofclaim 21, wherein the energy storage system is configured to storeenergy in the form of an elevated fluid, a heated fluid, or a compressedfluid.
 29. The system of claim 21, wherein the power source is furtherconfigured to transfer energy to the energy storage system when theamount of stored energy in the energy storage system is below athreshold level.
 30. The system of claim 21, further comprising: a powerconverter electrically coupled to the energy storage system and thebattery cells, the power converter configured to adjust a direct current(DC) voltage in the first and second operating states.
 31. The system ofclaim 21, wherein the controller is operably coupled to the energystorage system and configured to monitor and control a charging state ofthe energy storage system.
 32. A system of claim 21, wherein theplurality of cells is a first plurality of cells, the battery formationsystem further comprising: a second plurality of battery cells, theenergy is transferred from the energy storage system to the firstplurality of cells during a first time period, energy is transferredfrom the first plurality of cells during a second time period, andenergy is transferred from the energy storage system to the secondplurality of cells during a third time period.
 33. The system of claim32, wherein at least a portion of the first time period is concurrentwith at least a portion of the third time period.
 34. The system ofclaim 32, wherein at least a portion of the second time period isconcurrent with at least a portion of the third time period.
 35. Abattery formation system comprising: a plurality of battery cells; adiagnostic unit electrically coupled to the plurality of battery cellsand configured to measure a state of charge of the plurality of cells;an energy storage system electrically coupled to the battery cells andconfigured to transfer energy from the energy storage system to thebattery cells; an electrical connection electrically coupling the energystorage system to a power source; and a controller operably coupled tothe battery cells and to the energy storage system, the controllerconfigured to control a charging state of the battery cells.
 36. Thesystem of claim 35, wherein the transfer of energy from the power sourceto the energy storage system is based on the amount of energy stored inthe energy storage system.
 37. The system of claim 35, wherein thediagnostic unit is configured to generate control signals to makeadjustments to a rate of energy transfer to the battery cells.
 38. Thesystem of claim 35, further comprising: a power converter electricallycoupled to the energy storage system and to the battery cells, the powerconverter configured to adjust a direct current (DC) voltage across theplurality of cells.
 39. The system of claim 35, wherein the controllerincludes a cell balancing module.
 40. The system of claim 35, whereinthe plurality of battery cells connected in series.
 41. The system ofclaim 35, wherein the battery module further includes a cell fixtureconfigured to be electrically coupled to a plurality of batteries, thecell fixture configured to connect the plurality of batteries in aplurality of configurations.
 42. The system of claim 41, wherein one ofthe plurality of configurations is a series configuration.
 43. Thesystem of claim 35, wherein the energy storage system is configured tostore energy by at least one of: an electrical double-layer capacitor(EDLC), a Li-ion capacitor, a hybrid capacitor, a flywheel, and asuperconducting coil.
 44. The system of claim 35, wherein the diagnosticunit, upon determining that the defective cell cannot be repaired,directs the energy storage system to continue charging the rest of thecells of the plurality of cells.
 45. The system of claim 35, wherein thediagnostic unit is configured to repair the defective cell.
 46. Abattery formation system comprising: a battery module; an energy storagesystem electrically coupled to the battery module and configured tobidirectionally transfer energy from and to the battery module, theenergy storage system operable in a first operating state in which afirst amount of energy is transferred from the energy storage system tothe plurality of battery cells to charge the plurality of battery cells,and a second operating state in which a second amount of energy istransferred from the battery cells to the centralized energy storagesystem to discharge the plurality of battery modules, the first amountof energy different than the second amount of energy; an electricalconnection to a power source electrically coupled to the energy storagesystem and configured to transfer energy from the power source to theenergy storage system based on an amount of stored energy in the energystorage system; and a controller operably coupled to the battery moduleand the energy storage system and configured to monitor and control acharging state of the battery module.
 47. The system of claim 46,wherein the battery module includes a plurality of batteries connectedin series.
 48. The system of claim 46, wherein the battery modulefurther includes a cell fixture configured to be electrically coupled toa plurality of batteries, the cell fixture configured to connect theplurality of batteries in series.
 49. The system of claim 46, whereinthe battery module further includes a cell fixture configured to beelectrically coupled to a plurality of batteries, the cell fixtureconfigured to connect the plurality of batteries in a plurality ofconfigurations.
 50. The system of claim 46, wherein one of the pluralityof configurations is a series configuration.
 51. The system of claim 46,wherein the battery module further includes a docking station configuredfor wireless charging of the battery module.
 52. The system of claim 46,wherein the energy storage system is configured to store energy by atleast one of: an electrical double-layer capacitor (EDLC), a Li-ioncapacitor, a hybrid capacitor, a flywheel, and a superconducting coil.53. The system of claim 46, wherein the energy storage system isconfigured to store energy in the form of an elevated fluid, a heatedfluid, or a compressed fluid.
 54. The system of claim 46, wherein thepower source is further configured to transfer energy to the energystorage system when the amount of stored energy in the energy storagesystem is below a threshold level.
 55. The system of claim 46, furthercomprising: a power converter electrically coupled to the energy storagesystem and the battery module, the power converter configured to adjusta direct current (DC) voltage in the first and second operating states.56. The system of claim 46, wherein the controller is operably coupledto the energy storage system and configured to monitor and control acharging state of the energy storage system.